This article discusses the development of an AMD processor which is accompanied with some description specifications and details some proprietary features, this article I lift because of the many questions via comments, IM, and email me about AMD processors.
AMD stands for Advanced Micro Devices
AMD development cycle
1. AMD K5
AMD K5 was originally created in order to work on all motherboards which support Intel. So who supports Intel motherboard will support AMD's K5 also. At that time, not all motherboards can instantly recognize AMD and must be able to upgrade the BIOS to recognize AMD.
Below are the types of AMD K5
AMD K5 - CPGA - Socket 7
CPU Clock
System Bus
L2 Cache
Chace Frequency
Micron Process
K5-PR 75
75MHz
50MHz
Onboard
50MHz
0.5
K5-PR 90
90MHz
60MHz
Onboard
50MHz
0.5
K5-PR 100
100MHz
66MHz
Onboard
50MHz
0.5
K5-PR 133
100MHz
66MHz
Onboard
50MHz
00:35
K5-PR 166
116MHz
66MHz
Onboard
50MHz
00:35
2. AMD K5
AMD K6 processor is the 6th generation processors with high performance and can be installed on the motherboard which supports Intel's Pentium. AMD K6 itself is subdivided his model are: AMD K6, AMD K6-2, AMD K6-III
Types of AMD K6
AMD-K6-CPGA Socket 7
CPU Clock
System Bus
L2 Cache
Cache Frequency
Micron Process
K6 166
166MHz
66MHz
Onboard
66MHz
00:35
K6 200
200MHz
66MHz
Onboard
66MHz
00:35
K6 233
233MHz
66MHz
Onboard
66MHz
00:35
K6 266
266MHz
66MHz
Onboard
66MHz
00:35
K6 300
300MHz
66MHz
Onboard
66MHz
00:25
The types of AMD K6-2
AMD K6-2-CPGA-Socket 7
CPU Clock
System Bus
L2 cache
Frequency cache
Micron Process
K6-2 266 AFR
266MHz
66MHz
Onboard
66MHz
00:25
K6-2 300 AFR
300MHz
100MHz
Onboard
100MHz
00:25
K6-2 333 AFR
333MHz
95MHz
Onboard
95MHz
00:25
K6-2 350 AFR
350MHz
100MHz
Onboard
100MHz
00:25
K6-2 366 AFR
366MHz
66MHz
Onboard
66MHz
00:25
K6-2 380 AFR
380MHz
95MHz
Onboard
95MHz
00:25
K6-2 400 AFQ
400MHz
100MHz
Onboard
100MHz
00:25
K6-2 400 AFR
400MHz
100MHz
Onboard
100MHz
00:25
K6-2 450 AHX
450MHz
100MHz
Onboard
100MHz
00:25
K6-2 450 AFX
450MHz
100MHz
Onboard
100MHz
00:25
K6-2 475 AHX
475MHz
95MHz
Onboard
95MHz
00:25
K6-2 475 AFX
475MHz
95MHz
Onboard
95MHz
00:25
K6-2 500 AFX
500MHz
100MHz
Onboard
100MHz
00:25
K6-2 533 AFX
533MHz
97MHz
Onboard
97MHz
00:25
K6-2 550 Agr
550MHz
100MHz
Onboard
100MHz
00:25
The types of AMD K6-III
AMD K6-III-CPGA-Socket 7
CPU Clock
System Bus
L2 Cache
Cache Frequency
Micron Process
K6-III 400 AHX
400MHz
100MHz
256KB + L3
100MHz
00:25
K6-III 400 AFR
400MHz
100MHz
256KB + L3
100MHz
00:25
K6-III 450 AFX
450MHz
100MHz
256KB + L3
100MHz
00:25
K6-III 450 AHX
450MHz
100MHz
256KB + L3
100MHz
0.
3. AMD Duron
AMD's Duron is a cheap version of the processor family, known in 2000, initially the processor has a code name which is based on Core Spitfire Thunderbird. AMD Athlon AMD Duron is the version which "summed up" he has all owned by AMD Athlon architecture. The performance of AMD Athlon AMD Duron with almost the same only difference of 7% -10% higher bit AMD Athlon. This Sa'at AMD Duron AMD have stopped production.
4. AMD Athlon
AMD Athlon is the successor of the AMD K6 microprocessor series. This processor is a come-back action AMD to industrial micro-processor high-end Intel and AMD want to shift as the market leader in the microprocessor industry. Some additional features of these processors is the addition of two instructions for 3DNow! And two for the MMX instruction which resides in the floating point pipeline. Instructions 3DNow! Who entered into the AMD Athlon processor has been improved and expanded by adding 24 interuksi for integer arithmetic calculations. This processor outperformed the Intel Pentium III Katmai and new can be approximated by an Intel Pentium III Coppermine. Other features of this processor is the AMD Athlon processor can be used for multiprocessor systems as well as the sixth generation of Intel processors (P6). By using the AMD 750 MP chipset (Iron Gate) and AMD 760 MPX, AMD processors realize the computer which has two AMD Athlon processors.
For that AMD makes two types of processors are:
- Single-Processor with AMD Athlon name, and
- Multiprocessor with a AMD Athlon Professional.
Both are equipped with the same technology with different support for multiprocessor.
AMD Athlon / Athlon professionals intended to compete with Intel Pentium II Xeon processors and Intel Pentium III Xeon processor with all the reliability of distinguished assets. Athlon win on the system bus architecture, while the Xeon wins on level-2 cache, which runs at full speed despite the Xeon is in the cartridge.
Pentiun Intel Pentium II and III is not the opponent who can match the power of the Athlon processor. Only the Coppermine Pentium alone. AMD Athlon stuck at a speed of 1000MHz, AMD managed to reach the limits of psychology: through restrictions 1000MHz (1GHz) 3 days before Intel launches faster Intel Pentium III Coppermine 1 GHz. This resulted in AMD received the title "Processorn of the Year" in 2000.
AMD Athlon Models
*
Athlon Classic:
- K7 - Argon (250 nm)
- K75 - Pluto / Orion (180 nm)
MMX 3D Now!
Slot A
100 MHz double-pumped
Vcore: 1.6 V (K7), 1.6 - 1.8 V (K75)
The first exit June 23, 1999 (K7), 29 November 1999 (K75)
500-700 MHz clock-rate (K7), 550-1000 MHz (K75)
*
Athlon Thunderbird (180nm)
Exit first 5 juni 2000
Successfully compete with IP III
MMX 3DNow!
Boros Power and High Temperature
700-1400 MHz speed
*
Athlon XP (eXtrime Power) (130 nm)
Many people perceive the equivalent of an Intel Pentium 4
Compatible RAM: DDR / SDRAM 100, 133, 166, 200 Mhz
Instruction Processors: 3D NOW! - Intel x86 Compatibility Intel MMX - SSE and SSE2
Rating / clock speed available: 1500 + s / d 200 +, 2200 + s / d 3000 +, 3200 +
*
Palomino (180nm)
Exit the first October 9, 2001
MMX, 3DNow! , Streaming SMID Extensions / SSE
Clockrate: 133 - 1733 MHz (1500 + s / d 2100 +)
*
Thoroughbred A / B (130 nm)
Exit the first June 10, 2002 (A), August 21, 2002 (B)
MMX, 3DNow!, Streaming SMID Extensions / SSE
Socket A
Clock Rate: T-Bred "A": 1400-1800 (1600 + s / d 2200 +)
T-Bred "B": 1400-2250 (1600 + s / d 2800 +)
266 MT / s FSB :1400-2133 MHz (1600 + s / d 2600 +)
333 MT / s FSB: 2083 to 2250 MHz (2600 + s / d 2800 +)
*
Thorton (130nm)
Exit the first September 2003
MMX, 3DNow, Streaming SMID Extensions / SSE
Clockrate: 166-2200 MHz (2000 + s / d 3100 +)
5. AMD Athlon 64
The processor socket has 3 different variants namely socket 754, 939, and 940. Socket 754 has a memory controller which supports the use of single channel DDR memory. Socket 939 has a memory controller which supports dual channel memory. This processor is the first processor which is compatible to 64bit computing. These processors use AMD 64 technology, which can work on the operating system and applications 32-bit and 64 bit.
6. AMD Athlon 64 FX
This processor has 2 important characteristics:
- Can work on operating systems and applications 32-bit or 64 bit with full speed
- Provides protection virus called Ehanced Virus Protection when run on a platform of Windows XP Service Pack 2 (SP2) or Windows XP 64 Bit Edition.
PC-based system which AMD Athlon 64 FX is suitable for PC users who enthusiastically, though fans of Video-Audio (multimedia) and the players game.
Other features:
3DNow! Professional + SSE 2 instruction
HyperTransport Technology
On-Die cache memory of 1152KB (with 128kB details for L1 and L2 1024 KB for
The types of AMD Athlon 64 FX
AMD Athlon FX 51, AMD Athlon FX 53, AMD Athlon 57 FX
7. AMD Sempron
This processor is a line of processors which were introduced by AMD in 2004 as a substitute for AMD Duron processor cheap computer market, to compete with Intel Celeron D. AMD Sempron divided into 2 types:
-AMD Sempron socket A
-AMD Sempron Socket 754
A socket version of the AMD Sempron is custom-made variant of the Sempron processor-based AMD Athlon XP Thoroughbred, because at that time it has launched the AMD processor to market high-end AMD Athlon 64.
AMD Sempron socket 754 Sempron processors which are built on AMD64 architecture in order to enhance the performance of distinguished assets.
AMD Sempron has a code name same as Palermo AMD Sempron socket A. But some series AMD Sempron 64bit feature is not enabled so that only it can execute 32bit instructions. Like the AMD Athlon 64 processor is furnished with a single HyperTransport link which can be connected to the motherboard chipset.
8. AMD 64 X2 Dual Core
This processor is intended to compete with what Intel developed its Core Duo processors. Fixed-based 64-bit technology, the processor is intended for the intensive users of digital media.
From the features of this processor is equipped with just as HyperTransport technology which can improve overall system performance by removing bottlenecks at the level of input output, increase bandwidth, reduce latency system. The approach used here is distinguished DDR memory controller that is fully integrated so that helps speed access to memory, by providing a route processor dai directly to the main memory. As a result, applications can enjoy faster loading of applications further increases performance.
9. AMD Opteron
This processor is 64 bit which was released for workstation and server market in the spring of 2003.
Features:
Level-1-Cahche 128 KB which is divided into the data cache, 64 KB and 64 KB instruction cache.
-Level-2 cache of 1024 KB
-The speed from 1400 MHz - 3000MHz
Featuring 3-speed HyperTransport links buha 3200 Mbit / s
-Able to access physical memory up to 1 terabyte
-Available in single-core, dual-core, quad-core
-And many more. . . .
This processor to rival Intel's Xeon processors in the workstation market and High-End Itanium market. Compared with Intel Xeon Intel NetBurst microarchitecture-based reply, AMD Opteron processors can practically won a landslide victory seen from a distinguished performance in use is shown for each watt (performance / watt), but can not yet match the efficiency of Intel Itanium 2 processors.
AMD will also launch a Quad Core AMD Opteron processors in 2008, Quad-Core AMD Opteron processors use 4 cores capable of supporting fully buffered DIMMs and adding a level of L3-cache.
In addition to the above description there is the development of AMD Zamora, Cadiz AMD, AMD Greyhound, AMD Turion, and AMD with its Core Quad series. Due to me as the author has not received accurate information and distinguished literature on AMD processor series, then I can only describe the development of AMD processors only until here.
I am aware that the description above is still lacking and far from perfect, so presumably his readers understand :-). Even so I plan to upload about AMD Turion processor and AMD's latest series of others which is being widely discussed by many people and pebandingannya with Intel Core 2 Duo series of his.
Frankly though I as a writer, I also have not fully mastered products of AMD processors, because I still learn it :-), therefore please reply Dear reader if a distinguished expert in the hardware, especially on AMD processors are willing to supplement my writing this, Especially on AMD Turion and AMD's latest series of others, please send it via e-mail me, I will add in my writing this. As a token of gratitude I can only reply by stating your name at the end of this paper later.
Also dear readers who distinguished experts in the Hardware-Processor AMD if willing to help answer questions from other readers who submit questions about AMD processors on line comments to this article.
Jumat, 18 Februari 2011
The History of Intel
The History of Intel, 30 Years of Innovation
This year, Intel celebrates its 30th anniversary – 30 years filled with innovation and industry-leading technology. The development of this revolutionary company is a story of vision, willingness to embrace change, and just plain luck; a story that put Intel at the very heart of the Information Age.
Life Before the Microprocessor
The microprocessor has changed our lives in so many ways that it is difficult to recall how different things were before its invention. In the 1960s, computers filled entire rooms. Their expensive processing power was available only to a select few in government labs, research universities and large corporations. The mid-1960s development of the integrated circuit (co-invented by Intel founder Bob Noyce) had enabled the miniaturization of electronic circuitry onto a single silicon chip, but the world was still skeptical. The large scale integration of transistors onto silicon was still an emerging business.
At its founding on July 18, 1968, Intel had carved out a unique challenge: to make semiconductor memory practical. This was quite a stretch, considering that silicon memory was at least 100 times more expensive than magnetic core memory, the leading technology at the time. But Intel’s founders felt that semiconductor memory’s advantages -- smaller size, greater performance, reduced energy consumption -- would convince manufacturers to try the new technology. General-purpose Success It started modestly, when Japanese manufacturer Busicom asked Intel to design a set of chips for a family of high-performance programmable calculators. At the time, all logic chips (which perform calculations and execute programs, as opposed to memory chips, which store instructions and data) were custom-designed for each customer’s product. By definition, this process limited the widespread application of any one logic chip.
That was all about to change. Busicom’s original design for their calculator called for at least 12 custom chips. But Intel engineer Ted Hoff rejected the unwieldy proposal and instead designed a single-chip, general-purpose logic device that retrieved its application instructions from semiconductor memory. As the core of a four-chip set, this central processing unit not only met Busicom’s calculator needs but could be plugged into a variety of applications without needing to be redesigned.
Buying Back the Cash Cow
There was only one problem with the new chip: Busicom owned the rights to it. Hoff and others knew that the product had almost limitless application, bringing intelligence to a host of "dumb" machines. They urged Intel to repurchase the rights to the product. While Intel founders Gordon Moore and Noyce championed the new chip, others within the company were concerned that the product would distract Intel from its memory mission. Finally, the doubters were convinced by the fact that every four-chip microcomputer set included two memory chips. As the director of marketing at the time recalled, "Originally, I think we saw it as a way to sell more memories, and we were willing to make the investment on that basis."
Intel offered to return Busicom’s $60,000 investment in exchange for the rights to the product. Struggling with financial troubles, the Japanese company agreed. At the time the Busicom deal hardly made a ripple at Intel or in the industry. But it paved the way for Intel’s developing vision of ubiquitous microprocessor-based computing.
The Microprocessor Hits the Market
The 4004 microcomputer set (the term "microprocessor" was not coined until later) was formally introduced at the end of 1971. Smaller than a thumbnail and packing 2300 transistors, the $200 chip delivered as much computing power as the first electronic computer, ENIAC. By comparison, ENIAC relied on 18,000 vacuum tubes packed into 3,000 cubic feet when it was built in 1946. The 4004 executed 60,000 operations in one second, primitive by today’s standards, but a major breakthrough at the time.
Soon after the 4004, Intel introduced the 8008 microcomputer, which processed eight bits of information at a time, twice as much as the original chip. As anticipated, both devices began to open up new markets for Intel products. For the first time, affordable computing power was available to designers of all types of products -- and this potential sparked boundless creativity and innovation. The first digital scales appeared at local grocery stores -- the microcomputer converted weights to prices and operated a label printer for marking purchases. Traffic lights were able to detect waiting cars and control traffic more efficiently. The new microcomputer revolutionized everything from medical instruments to inventory computers for fast-food restaurants, airline reservations systems to gasoline pumps, even pinball games and slot machines. Take a look at our sidebar on The Ubiquitous Microprocessor for more information.
Still, neither Intel nor its customers anticipated every potential application for the new products. In one particularly ironic example, Intel Chairman Emeritus Moore remembers, "In the mid-1970s, someone came to me with an idea for what was basically the PC. The idea was that we could outfit an 8080 processor with a keyboard and a monitor and sell it in the home market. I asked, ‘What’s it good for?’ And the only answer was that a housewife could keep her recipes on it. I personally didn’t see anything useful in it, so we never gave it another thought."
Turning Point: The IBM PC
By 1981, Intel’s microprocessor family had grown to include the 16-bit 8086 and the eight-bit 8088 processors. These two chips garnered an unprecedented 2,500 design wins in a single year. Among those designs was a product from IBM: it was to become the first PC.
Without knowing the details of the product, Intel sales engineers had to win IBM’s confidence, since "Big Blue" had never used an outside vendor for a key microprocessor before. As the Intel sales engineer who serviced the IBM account recalled, "Everything was very secretive. When we went in to provide technical support, they’d have our technical people on one side of a black curtain and theirs on the other side, with their prototype product. We’d ask questions, they’d tell us what was happening and we’d have to try to solve the problem literally in the dark. If we were lucky, they’d let us reach a hand through the curtain and grope around a bit to try to figure out what the problem was."
Eventually, Intel’s long-term commitment to the microprocessor product line and ability to manufacture in volume convinced IBM to choose the 8088 as the brains of its first PC. IBM’s decision proved a terrific coup for Intel, but again, it was an event whose significance was not evident at first. The Intel sales engineer who worked with IBM on the project recalled, "At the time, a great account was one that generated 10,000 units a year. Nobody comprehended the scale of the PC business would grow to tens of millions of units every year."
In 1982, Intel introduced the 286 chip. With 134,000 transistors, it provided about three times the performance of other 16-bit processors of the time. Featuring on-chip memory management, the 286 was the first microprocessor that offered software compatibility with its predecessors. This revolutionary chip was first used in IBM’s benchmark PC-AT*.
The Microprocessor Machine
In 1985, the Intel386™ processor hit the streets. Sporting new 32-bit architecture and a staggering 275,000 transistors, the chip could perform more than five million instructions every second (MIPS). Compaq’s DESKPRO* 386 was the first PC based on the new microprocessor.
Next out of the block was the Intel486™ processor in 1989. Accelerated product development was in full bloom, and the new chip showcased the results: 1.2 million transistors and the first built-in math coprocessor. The new chip was some 50 times faster than the original 4004, equaling the performance of powerful mainframe computers.
In 1993, Intel introduced the Pentium® processor, setting new performance standards with up to five times the performance of the Intel486 processor. The Pentium processor uses 3.1 million transistors to perform up to 90 MIPS -- about 1,500 times the speed of the original 4004.
Nineteen ninety-five saw the introduction of Intel’s first processor in the P6 family, the Pentium Pro processor. With 5.5 million transistors, it was the first to be packaged with a second die containing high-speed memory cache to accelerate performance. Capable of performing up to 300 MIPS, the Pentium Pro continues to be a popular choice for multiprocessor servers and high-performance workstations.
Intel started of 1997 with a bang, introducing its revolutionary MMX™ technology, a new set of instructions designed to enhance multimedia performance. All processors following the introduction of the Pentium processor with MMX technology have included this technology. At the same time, Intel introduced its popular BunnyPeople™ characters – the colorful dancing technicians who "put the fun into Intel processors." Intel’s BunnyPeople characters have been featured in commercials, at tradeshow keynotes, and as beanbag dolls. They have popped up in stores all over the globe where Intel processor-based PCs are sold.
As the overall market for desktop PCs grew over time it evolved into three market segments differentiated by the computing needs of various customers -- Enthusiast/Professional, Performance, and Basic PC. Intel’s prior strategy has been to design ever-more powerful processors aimed at the top end of the computer market segment as previous-generation chips migrated to the lower-end market segment. Intel’s new strategy is to use one core technology as a foundation for developing a range of processor products tailored to meet the needs of multiple segments.
With this strategy in mind, Intel introduced the Pentium II processor in May 1997. Pentium II processors, with 7.5 million transistors packed into a unique Single Edge Contact Cartridge, deliver exceptional performance on today’s business applications, and provide headroom for upcoming software, such as more advanced operating systems and 3-D-based Web browsers. Consumer PCs based on Pentium II processors feature new technologies such as DVD players and AGP graphics, delivering the best home computing experience available. Intel also offers Pentium II processors for mobile PCs, bringing a new level of performance and computing capabilities not previously available to mobile PC users.
Introduced in April 1998, the Intel® Celeron® processor is the latest Intel processor optimized to meet the computing needs of Basic PC users. Intel Celeron processor-based PCs meet the core computing needs and affordability requirements of many new PC users, while also providing a balanced platform on which to run some of today’s standard business and home PC applications.
Servers and workstations also got a boost in 1998, with the recent introduction of the Pentium II Xeon™ processor. The newest addition to Intel’s Pentium II brand, the Pentium II Xeon processor, is Intel’s first microprocessor specifically designed for midrange and higher server and workstation platforms. Because server and workstation applications place heavy demands on a processor’s cache architecture, the Pentium II Xeon processor is available with large, fast Level 2 caches of 512 KB or 1 MB that are integrated into the processor cartridge at the full operation speed of the processor core (400 MHz).
"What is different is that we plan on obsoleting our own product line, generation after generation with almost doubling performance every year," said Albert Yu, senior vice president and general manager of the Microprocessor Products Group.
In 1991, PCs based on the Intel486 processor cost about $225 per MIPS of performance. Today, the Pentium II processor delivers dramatically increased performance at a cost of only about $2 per MIPS. As Moore notes, "If the auto industry advanced as rapidly as the semiconductor industry, a Rolls Royce would get a half a million miles per gallon, and it would be cheaper to throw it away than to park it."
The PC Revolution
That first PC sparked a computer revolution. Today the PC is everywhere, with over 200 million in use throughout the world. A child using a Pentium processor-based PC has more computing power than was available to mainframe computer operators just a decade ago, more power than the U.S. government first used to send men to the moon.
The PC has democratized computing around the world. Many people now believe that technological literacy will dictate opportunities for future generations. People’s livelihood will rest on their ability to gather, process and distribute information via increasingly powerful PCs. As microprocessor inventor Hoff reflects, "Information is power. I like the way the microprocessor has spread that power around."
Today, the PC’s emerging status as the linked communications device of choice is revolutionizing modern life yet again. PC-based video conferencing, internal networking and the Internet are standard business communications tools. And people everywhere are turning to their PCs to tap into the Internet, to connect, explore and create new worlds of entertainment, information and communication.
Designing the Modern Chip
Underlying the expanding microprocessor revolution is Intel’s ability to continually reduce the cost of high-performance processing power. What has made this dramatic pace of improvement possible? Much of the performance increase is due to Intel’s remarkable strides in designing leading edge microarchitecture on the latest silicon technology and ramping the product in huge volume -- allowing the company to squeeze increasing numbers of transistors on a chip and leading to more power on desktops for less and less money.
The first microprocessor was developed by two engineers in nine months. Modern microprocessor design requires hundreds of people, clustered into teams dedicated to portions of each chip, working on various phases of design.
Today’s microprocessor designer still has to be concerned with everything that touches the chip. But, unlike the manual design process of yesteryear, today’s designers use sophisticated computer-aided design (CAD) programs running on high-powered workstations to create their complex "maps." Through the use of CAD programs and other tools, the productivity of design has improved enormously, but it is just barely keeping up with the increased complexity and performance. In designing microprocessors of the future, dependence on advanced computer-aided design tools will continue to soar.
Testing has also become a significant part of the design process. Yu explains: "There are literally billions and trillions of lines of code that Intel chips must be compatible with. We have to be completely compatible with earlier generations -- the entire line of Intel Architecture." This is accomplished by using extensive test suites, sophisticated instrumentation and exhaustive validation techniques to diagnose and cure problems.
In contrast, Intel’s 1971 testing was limited to an oscilloscope examination. "Engineers would build a breadboard-a physical model of the chip -- and apply simple tests to verify the circuitry," says Yu. "That was about it." Other early methods included dropping parts on the floor to test their shock resistance and sealing them in everyday, off-the-shelf pressure cookers for six hours.
Manufacturing Miracles
Twenty-five years ago, manufacturing processes were relatively primitive. As Intel Chairman Andy Grove recalled, "The fab area looked like Willy Wonka’s factory, with hoses and wires and contraptions chugging along -- the semiconductor equivalent of the Wright Brothers’ jury-rigged airplane. It was state-of-the-art manufacturing at the time, but by today’s standards, it was unbelievably crude."
Fab fashions now and then:
Intel technicians in the company’s early days wore short smocks over their street clothes. Today, technicians wear specialized "bunny suits" to maintain a sterile environment in the fabrication plants.
Most of the work was done by hand. Fab workers used tweezers to load silicon wafers (from which chips are cut) onto quartz "boats," then pushed the boats into red-hot furnaces. The operators then opened and closed valves by hand to expose the wafers to various gasses for specified amounts of time. According to Gerry Parker, executive vice president and general manager of the New Business Group, "This process was fraught with potential for error. Many wafers came out of the oven looking like extra crispy potato chips."
As wafers grew larger and manufacturing processes needed much more precise control, machines, instead of people, were called on to handle the wafers. Today, microprocessor-controlled robots whisk the wafers between process stages, and operators are called on to keep the complex equipment working at peak efficiency. In addition to more consistent handling, automation has provided the added benefit of isolating workers from physical and chemical hazards.
As the silicon transistors shrank, it became increasingly important to keep damaging particles such as dust and skin flakes away from the developing wafers. In the first fabs, standards were lax: workers did not cover their hair and wore only a simple smock over their street clothes. Soon, special "bunny suits" were introduced to minimize contaminants and improve air purity. Today, workers wear suits of a non-linting, anti-static fabric with face masks, safety glasses, gloves, shoe coverings and even special breathing equipment. As a result, modern cleanrooms are 100 times cleaner than those of 25 years ago.
Intel’s rigorous quality-control efforts have paid off. In the mid-1980s, fewer than 50 percent of Intel’s chips were functional at the end of the manufacturing line. Today, the manufacturing process yields are dramatically higher.
Into the Future
In its first 30 years, Intel technology has enabled developments that were unimaginable a quarter century ago. We may be even more amazed at what emerges over the next 30 years. As microprocessors become faster and more powerful, an endless array of new applications develop and existing applications will spread to far corners of the world. We will witness further integration of audio, video and conferencing capabilities with the Internet. At home, more and more people will be able to view and print family photos from their digital camera, using an intuitive photo editing program to remove red-eye, lighten dark backgrounds, and incorporate the photos into family newsletters and Web pages.
The increase in computing power will also be used to make computers easier to use. Voice and handwriting recognition, local control of complex Internet-based applications, and lifelike animation demand considerable computing power -- all available in the Intel microprocessor roadmap. Yu explains: "Our customers want us to design a microprocessor with millions of transistors that will be able to do 3-D animation on the desktop in real time. That’s a wonderful challenge! We plan to continue this incredible delivery of ever increasing performance at reasonable cost well into the next century."
This year, Intel celebrates its 30th anniversary – 30 years filled with innovation and industry-leading technology. The development of this revolutionary company is a story of vision, willingness to embrace change, and just plain luck; a story that put Intel at the very heart of the Information Age.
Life Before the Microprocessor
The microprocessor has changed our lives in so many ways that it is difficult to recall how different things were before its invention. In the 1960s, computers filled entire rooms. Their expensive processing power was available only to a select few in government labs, research universities and large corporations. The mid-1960s development of the integrated circuit (co-invented by Intel founder Bob Noyce) had enabled the miniaturization of electronic circuitry onto a single silicon chip, but the world was still skeptical. The large scale integration of transistors onto silicon was still an emerging business.
At its founding on July 18, 1968, Intel had carved out a unique challenge: to make semiconductor memory practical. This was quite a stretch, considering that silicon memory was at least 100 times more expensive than magnetic core memory, the leading technology at the time. But Intel’s founders felt that semiconductor memory’s advantages -- smaller size, greater performance, reduced energy consumption -- would convince manufacturers to try the new technology. General-purpose Success It started modestly, when Japanese manufacturer Busicom asked Intel to design a set of chips for a family of high-performance programmable calculators. At the time, all logic chips (which perform calculations and execute programs, as opposed to memory chips, which store instructions and data) were custom-designed for each customer’s product. By definition, this process limited the widespread application of any one logic chip.
That was all about to change. Busicom’s original design for their calculator called for at least 12 custom chips. But Intel engineer Ted Hoff rejected the unwieldy proposal and instead designed a single-chip, general-purpose logic device that retrieved its application instructions from semiconductor memory. As the core of a four-chip set, this central processing unit not only met Busicom’s calculator needs but could be plugged into a variety of applications without needing to be redesigned.
Buying Back the Cash Cow
There was only one problem with the new chip: Busicom owned the rights to it. Hoff and others knew that the product had almost limitless application, bringing intelligence to a host of "dumb" machines. They urged Intel to repurchase the rights to the product. While Intel founders Gordon Moore and Noyce championed the new chip, others within the company were concerned that the product would distract Intel from its memory mission. Finally, the doubters were convinced by the fact that every four-chip microcomputer set included two memory chips. As the director of marketing at the time recalled, "Originally, I think we saw it as a way to sell more memories, and we were willing to make the investment on that basis."
Intel offered to return Busicom’s $60,000 investment in exchange for the rights to the product. Struggling with financial troubles, the Japanese company agreed. At the time the Busicom deal hardly made a ripple at Intel or in the industry. But it paved the way for Intel’s developing vision of ubiquitous microprocessor-based computing.
The Microprocessor Hits the Market
The 4004 microcomputer set (the term "microprocessor" was not coined until later) was formally introduced at the end of 1971. Smaller than a thumbnail and packing 2300 transistors, the $200 chip delivered as much computing power as the first electronic computer, ENIAC. By comparison, ENIAC relied on 18,000 vacuum tubes packed into 3,000 cubic feet when it was built in 1946. The 4004 executed 60,000 operations in one second, primitive by today’s standards, but a major breakthrough at the time.
Soon after the 4004, Intel introduced the 8008 microcomputer, which processed eight bits of information at a time, twice as much as the original chip. As anticipated, both devices began to open up new markets for Intel products. For the first time, affordable computing power was available to designers of all types of products -- and this potential sparked boundless creativity and innovation. The first digital scales appeared at local grocery stores -- the microcomputer converted weights to prices and operated a label printer for marking purchases. Traffic lights were able to detect waiting cars and control traffic more efficiently. The new microcomputer revolutionized everything from medical instruments to inventory computers for fast-food restaurants, airline reservations systems to gasoline pumps, even pinball games and slot machines. Take a look at our sidebar on The Ubiquitous Microprocessor for more information.
Still, neither Intel nor its customers anticipated every potential application for the new products. In one particularly ironic example, Intel Chairman Emeritus Moore remembers, "In the mid-1970s, someone came to me with an idea for what was basically the PC. The idea was that we could outfit an 8080 processor with a keyboard and a monitor and sell it in the home market. I asked, ‘What’s it good for?’ And the only answer was that a housewife could keep her recipes on it. I personally didn’t see anything useful in it, so we never gave it another thought."
Turning Point: The IBM PC
By 1981, Intel’s microprocessor family had grown to include the 16-bit 8086 and the eight-bit 8088 processors. These two chips garnered an unprecedented 2,500 design wins in a single year. Among those designs was a product from IBM: it was to become the first PC.
Without knowing the details of the product, Intel sales engineers had to win IBM’s confidence, since "Big Blue" had never used an outside vendor for a key microprocessor before. As the Intel sales engineer who serviced the IBM account recalled, "Everything was very secretive. When we went in to provide technical support, they’d have our technical people on one side of a black curtain and theirs on the other side, with their prototype product. We’d ask questions, they’d tell us what was happening and we’d have to try to solve the problem literally in the dark. If we were lucky, they’d let us reach a hand through the curtain and grope around a bit to try to figure out what the problem was."
Eventually, Intel’s long-term commitment to the microprocessor product line and ability to manufacture in volume convinced IBM to choose the 8088 as the brains of its first PC. IBM’s decision proved a terrific coup for Intel, but again, it was an event whose significance was not evident at first. The Intel sales engineer who worked with IBM on the project recalled, "At the time, a great account was one that generated 10,000 units a year. Nobody comprehended the scale of the PC business would grow to tens of millions of units every year."
In 1982, Intel introduced the 286 chip. With 134,000 transistors, it provided about three times the performance of other 16-bit processors of the time. Featuring on-chip memory management, the 286 was the first microprocessor that offered software compatibility with its predecessors. This revolutionary chip was first used in IBM’s benchmark PC-AT*.
The Microprocessor Machine
In 1985, the Intel386™ processor hit the streets. Sporting new 32-bit architecture and a staggering 275,000 transistors, the chip could perform more than five million instructions every second (MIPS). Compaq’s DESKPRO* 386 was the first PC based on the new microprocessor.
Next out of the block was the Intel486™ processor in 1989. Accelerated product development was in full bloom, and the new chip showcased the results: 1.2 million transistors and the first built-in math coprocessor. The new chip was some 50 times faster than the original 4004, equaling the performance of powerful mainframe computers.
In 1993, Intel introduced the Pentium® processor, setting new performance standards with up to five times the performance of the Intel486 processor. The Pentium processor uses 3.1 million transistors to perform up to 90 MIPS -- about 1,500 times the speed of the original 4004.
Nineteen ninety-five saw the introduction of Intel’s first processor in the P6 family, the Pentium Pro processor. With 5.5 million transistors, it was the first to be packaged with a second die containing high-speed memory cache to accelerate performance. Capable of performing up to 300 MIPS, the Pentium Pro continues to be a popular choice for multiprocessor servers and high-performance workstations.
Intel started of 1997 with a bang, introducing its revolutionary MMX™ technology, a new set of instructions designed to enhance multimedia performance. All processors following the introduction of the Pentium processor with MMX technology have included this technology. At the same time, Intel introduced its popular BunnyPeople™ characters – the colorful dancing technicians who "put the fun into Intel processors." Intel’s BunnyPeople characters have been featured in commercials, at tradeshow keynotes, and as beanbag dolls. They have popped up in stores all over the globe where Intel processor-based PCs are sold.
As the overall market for desktop PCs grew over time it evolved into three market segments differentiated by the computing needs of various customers -- Enthusiast/Professional, Performance, and Basic PC. Intel’s prior strategy has been to design ever-more powerful processors aimed at the top end of the computer market segment as previous-generation chips migrated to the lower-end market segment. Intel’s new strategy is to use one core technology as a foundation for developing a range of processor products tailored to meet the needs of multiple segments.
With this strategy in mind, Intel introduced the Pentium II processor in May 1997. Pentium II processors, with 7.5 million transistors packed into a unique Single Edge Contact Cartridge, deliver exceptional performance on today’s business applications, and provide headroom for upcoming software, such as more advanced operating systems and 3-D-based Web browsers. Consumer PCs based on Pentium II processors feature new technologies such as DVD players and AGP graphics, delivering the best home computing experience available. Intel also offers Pentium II processors for mobile PCs, bringing a new level of performance and computing capabilities not previously available to mobile PC users.
Introduced in April 1998, the Intel® Celeron® processor is the latest Intel processor optimized to meet the computing needs of Basic PC users. Intel Celeron processor-based PCs meet the core computing needs and affordability requirements of many new PC users, while also providing a balanced platform on which to run some of today’s standard business and home PC applications.
Servers and workstations also got a boost in 1998, with the recent introduction of the Pentium II Xeon™ processor. The newest addition to Intel’s Pentium II brand, the Pentium II Xeon processor, is Intel’s first microprocessor specifically designed for midrange and higher server and workstation platforms. Because server and workstation applications place heavy demands on a processor’s cache architecture, the Pentium II Xeon processor is available with large, fast Level 2 caches of 512 KB or 1 MB that are integrated into the processor cartridge at the full operation speed of the processor core (400 MHz).
"What is different is that we plan on obsoleting our own product line, generation after generation with almost doubling performance every year," said Albert Yu, senior vice president and general manager of the Microprocessor Products Group.
In 1991, PCs based on the Intel486 processor cost about $225 per MIPS of performance. Today, the Pentium II processor delivers dramatically increased performance at a cost of only about $2 per MIPS. As Moore notes, "If the auto industry advanced as rapidly as the semiconductor industry, a Rolls Royce would get a half a million miles per gallon, and it would be cheaper to throw it away than to park it."
The PC Revolution
That first PC sparked a computer revolution. Today the PC is everywhere, with over 200 million in use throughout the world. A child using a Pentium processor-based PC has more computing power than was available to mainframe computer operators just a decade ago, more power than the U.S. government first used to send men to the moon.
The PC has democratized computing around the world. Many people now believe that technological literacy will dictate opportunities for future generations. People’s livelihood will rest on their ability to gather, process and distribute information via increasingly powerful PCs. As microprocessor inventor Hoff reflects, "Information is power. I like the way the microprocessor has spread that power around."
Today, the PC’s emerging status as the linked communications device of choice is revolutionizing modern life yet again. PC-based video conferencing, internal networking and the Internet are standard business communications tools. And people everywhere are turning to their PCs to tap into the Internet, to connect, explore and create new worlds of entertainment, information and communication.
Designing the Modern Chip
Underlying the expanding microprocessor revolution is Intel’s ability to continually reduce the cost of high-performance processing power. What has made this dramatic pace of improvement possible? Much of the performance increase is due to Intel’s remarkable strides in designing leading edge microarchitecture on the latest silicon technology and ramping the product in huge volume -- allowing the company to squeeze increasing numbers of transistors on a chip and leading to more power on desktops for less and less money.
The first microprocessor was developed by two engineers in nine months. Modern microprocessor design requires hundreds of people, clustered into teams dedicated to portions of each chip, working on various phases of design.
Today’s microprocessor designer still has to be concerned with everything that touches the chip. But, unlike the manual design process of yesteryear, today’s designers use sophisticated computer-aided design (CAD) programs running on high-powered workstations to create their complex "maps." Through the use of CAD programs and other tools, the productivity of design has improved enormously, but it is just barely keeping up with the increased complexity and performance. In designing microprocessors of the future, dependence on advanced computer-aided design tools will continue to soar.
Testing has also become a significant part of the design process. Yu explains: "There are literally billions and trillions of lines of code that Intel chips must be compatible with. We have to be completely compatible with earlier generations -- the entire line of Intel Architecture." This is accomplished by using extensive test suites, sophisticated instrumentation and exhaustive validation techniques to diagnose and cure problems.
In contrast, Intel’s 1971 testing was limited to an oscilloscope examination. "Engineers would build a breadboard-a physical model of the chip -- and apply simple tests to verify the circuitry," says Yu. "That was about it." Other early methods included dropping parts on the floor to test their shock resistance and sealing them in everyday, off-the-shelf pressure cookers for six hours.
Manufacturing Miracles
Twenty-five years ago, manufacturing processes were relatively primitive. As Intel Chairman Andy Grove recalled, "The fab area looked like Willy Wonka’s factory, with hoses and wires and contraptions chugging along -- the semiconductor equivalent of the Wright Brothers’ jury-rigged airplane. It was state-of-the-art manufacturing at the time, but by today’s standards, it was unbelievably crude."
Fab fashions now and then:
Intel technicians in the company’s early days wore short smocks over their street clothes. Today, technicians wear specialized "bunny suits" to maintain a sterile environment in the fabrication plants.
Most of the work was done by hand. Fab workers used tweezers to load silicon wafers (from which chips are cut) onto quartz "boats," then pushed the boats into red-hot furnaces. The operators then opened and closed valves by hand to expose the wafers to various gasses for specified amounts of time. According to Gerry Parker, executive vice president and general manager of the New Business Group, "This process was fraught with potential for error. Many wafers came out of the oven looking like extra crispy potato chips."
As wafers grew larger and manufacturing processes needed much more precise control, machines, instead of people, were called on to handle the wafers. Today, microprocessor-controlled robots whisk the wafers between process stages, and operators are called on to keep the complex equipment working at peak efficiency. In addition to more consistent handling, automation has provided the added benefit of isolating workers from physical and chemical hazards.
As the silicon transistors shrank, it became increasingly important to keep damaging particles such as dust and skin flakes away from the developing wafers. In the first fabs, standards were lax: workers did not cover their hair and wore only a simple smock over their street clothes. Soon, special "bunny suits" were introduced to minimize contaminants and improve air purity. Today, workers wear suits of a non-linting, anti-static fabric with face masks, safety glasses, gloves, shoe coverings and even special breathing equipment. As a result, modern cleanrooms are 100 times cleaner than those of 25 years ago.
Intel’s rigorous quality-control efforts have paid off. In the mid-1980s, fewer than 50 percent of Intel’s chips were functional at the end of the manufacturing line. Today, the manufacturing process yields are dramatically higher.
Into the Future
In its first 30 years, Intel technology has enabled developments that were unimaginable a quarter century ago. We may be even more amazed at what emerges over the next 30 years. As microprocessors become faster and more powerful, an endless array of new applications develop and existing applications will spread to far corners of the world. We will witness further integration of audio, video and conferencing capabilities with the Internet. At home, more and more people will be able to view and print family photos from their digital camera, using an intuitive photo editing program to remove red-eye, lighten dark backgrounds, and incorporate the photos into family newsletters and Web pages.
The increase in computing power will also be used to make computers easier to use. Voice and handwriting recognition, local control of complex Internet-based applications, and lifelike animation demand considerable computing power -- all available in the Intel microprocessor roadmap. Yu explains: "Our customers want us to design a microprocessor with millions of transistors that will be able to do 3-D animation on the desktop in real time. That’s a wonderful challenge! We plan to continue this incredible delivery of ever increasing performance at reasonable cost well into the next century."
AMD AND MICROSOFT VISUL STUDIO 2010
AMD would like to congratulate Microsoft on today’s launch of Visual Studio 2010 (VS 2010). Personally, I’m excited about this release. I’ve had an opportunity to work with the RTM of VS 2010, and I’ve detailed some of my thoughts and impressions below.
To begin with, Visual Studio 2010 has a number of enhancements that Microsoft has designed to help improve the developer experience, and which can also benefit the end-user, by making better use of hardware and the computing platform:
* The editor and IDE have been completely rewritten. The new editor and UI now use Windows Presentation Foundation (WPF) under the covers, which enables the developer to zoom in to code and adds features such as code outlining and more comprehensive syntax highlighting. In addition, when running on a DirectX 9 or DirectX 10-capable GPU such as those in the ATI Radeon™ HD 4000 and HD 5000 series, the rendering is hardware accelerated and results in a smoother visual experience over software alone.
* Along with the WPF support, developers can now take better advantage of multiple monitors in VS 2010 with new support for floating documents.
* The C/C++ compiler has been enhanced, both at the front-end (language syntax) and back-end (code generation). On the front-end, there is support for C++0x syntax such as the auto keyword and lambda expressions. The back-end improves x86 and x64 code quality to enhance the speed of compiled code and make it smaller over prior releases of Visual Studio, which can result in more efficient execution of the program on our platforms.
* Cloud computing: VS 2010 supports Microsoft Azure development out of the box, which enables you to prototype and build a service in the cloud. Combined with Microsoft Silverlight 4, this should enable development of some unique and rich applications.
* Concurrency and parallel programming: VS 2010 has both the Concurrency Runtime (ConcRT) for native code, and the Task Parallel Library (TPL) and PLINQ for managed code. Both are work stealing task-based environments that are designed to allow developers to more easily take advantage of all the available cores in a system, and lower code complexity. The AMD Opteron™ 6100 series of processors (with up to 12 true cores in one socket) helps lower cost barriers and is well suited to run ConcRT, TPL, and PLINQ workloads.
* Microsoft is shipping Premium and Ultimate editions of Visual Studio 2010 with improved profiling and debugging tools. For example, Ultimate edition will have the IntelliTrace feature for historical debugging of managed (.NET) applications, which enables solving coding errors that might otherwise be extremely difficult to diagnose. The Premium edition will include some great profiling tools including the Concurrency Visualizer, which can help determine where performance bottlenecks exist and how code is utilizing (or underutilizing) available CPU resources.
* The .NET Framework’s Server Garbage Collector (GC) now supports up to 64 heaps (up from 32), which can allow applications to scale better than before. The GC is also aware of AMD processors, and adjusts its Gen0 size accordingly for new object allocations.
* In the coming weeks AMD plans to release an update to our CodeAnalyst Performance Analyzer, which will support Visual Studio 2010 and integrate as a plug-in.
This is just a snapshot of some of the features available in Visual Studio 2010 that we are quite excited about. Advancements like these that improve developer productivity and more efficiently take advantage of the supporting hardware are always welcome, and we look forward to our continued partnership with Microsoft to improve the developer story.
If you’d like more information on any of the features I’ve discussed in this blog, please check the Microsoft Visual Studio web site at http://www.microsoft.com/visualstudio. In addition, here are some good places to look for more information on this new and exciting release:
To begin with, Visual Studio 2010 has a number of enhancements that Microsoft has designed to help improve the developer experience, and which can also benefit the end-user, by making better use of hardware and the computing platform:
* The editor and IDE have been completely rewritten. The new editor and UI now use Windows Presentation Foundation (WPF) under the covers, which enables the developer to zoom in to code and adds features such as code outlining and more comprehensive syntax highlighting. In addition, when running on a DirectX 9 or DirectX 10-capable GPU such as those in the ATI Radeon™ HD 4000 and HD 5000 series, the rendering is hardware accelerated and results in a smoother visual experience over software alone.
* Along with the WPF support, developers can now take better advantage of multiple monitors in VS 2010 with new support for floating documents.
* The C/C++ compiler has been enhanced, both at the front-end (language syntax) and back-end (code generation). On the front-end, there is support for C++0x syntax such as the auto keyword and lambda expressions. The back-end improves x86 and x64 code quality to enhance the speed of compiled code and make it smaller over prior releases of Visual Studio, which can result in more efficient execution of the program on our platforms.
* Cloud computing: VS 2010 supports Microsoft Azure development out of the box, which enables you to prototype and build a service in the cloud. Combined with Microsoft Silverlight 4, this should enable development of some unique and rich applications.
* Concurrency and parallel programming: VS 2010 has both the Concurrency Runtime (ConcRT) for native code, and the Task Parallel Library (TPL) and PLINQ for managed code. Both are work stealing task-based environments that are designed to allow developers to more easily take advantage of all the available cores in a system, and lower code complexity. The AMD Opteron™ 6100 series of processors (with up to 12 true cores in one socket) helps lower cost barriers and is well suited to run ConcRT, TPL, and PLINQ workloads.
* Microsoft is shipping Premium and Ultimate editions of Visual Studio 2010 with improved profiling and debugging tools. For example, Ultimate edition will have the IntelliTrace feature for historical debugging of managed (.NET) applications, which enables solving coding errors that might otherwise be extremely difficult to diagnose. The Premium edition will include some great profiling tools including the Concurrency Visualizer, which can help determine where performance bottlenecks exist and how code is utilizing (or underutilizing) available CPU resources.
* The .NET Framework’s Server Garbage Collector (GC) now supports up to 64 heaps (up from 32), which can allow applications to scale better than before. The GC is also aware of AMD processors, and adjusts its Gen0 size accordingly for new object allocations.
* In the coming weeks AMD plans to release an update to our CodeAnalyst Performance Analyzer, which will support Visual Studio 2010 and integrate as a plug-in.
This is just a snapshot of some of the features available in Visual Studio 2010 that we are quite excited about. Advancements like these that improve developer productivity and more efficiently take advantage of the supporting hardware are always welcome, and we look forward to our continued partnership with Microsoft to improve the developer story.
If you’d like more information on any of the features I’ve discussed in this blog, please check the Microsoft Visual Studio web site at http://www.microsoft.com/visualstudio. In addition, here are some good places to look for more information on this new and exciting release:
Kamis, 17 Februari 2011
how to assemble computer
Stages - Stage Assembling Computers:
1. Make sure all equipment and materials that will be assembled was prepared.
2. Furthermore, before starting to assemble, we will do the checking on the mainboard. How: Install
Processor in socket on the mainboard processor (note the sign), connect the
Mainboard with Power Supplay, pairs of speakers as well. Then try on. When the
outgoing speaker beep sound repetitive, it means the mainboard is still healthy.
3. Then we will match the aperture / mainboard with the bolts in place of the existing bolts
on cashing. Note the hole anywhere that we can use later to membaut mainboard on
Cashing. After that install the mainboard and make sure all bolts are tightened.
4. Further pairs of RAM (also attach VGA card for VGA mainboard that is not ON Board),
then connect with the monitor. Try to turn, consider whether the specification of RAM and also Clock
Processor is in conformity with the specifications stated in his Box?
5. If all is okay, then in pairs of other devices such as Hard drive, Floppy Disks, CD
ROM, LAN Card and others.
6. Once installed all try to turn it on again, if there is no problem, can proceed with the process
installation.
• When you assemble your own computer right note WARRANTIES its limits, before the warranty runs out,
do not ever throw Box peripheralnya places such as Ram Box, Box MainBoad, VGA and other
forth.
Examples of problems that often occur in Computers:
1. At the time of booting, the computer displays the text "CMOS check sum error". This indicates that
stone BIOS battery was already low. Solved by replacing the BIOS battery according to the size
original.
2. The computer does not display anything when turned on, no sound coming out of the speakers.
Try checking the cable that connects between a VGA monitor. If you did not find any
damage, VGA Cardnya kemunkinannya is damaged.
3. Computer beep sound repeatedly when turned on.
RAM Check it, maybe there is dust / dirt, try off and cleaned, then in pairs again.
If still equal, replace his RAM.
4. When enabled, the hard drive indicator lights up and hold.
Possible hard drive has been exposed to BAD Sector Sector zero on it. If not so bad, still
could in the Low Level Format, then on the partition and the format, then try discandisk with surface
check
5. Computer displays messages Failur OR NON BOOT DISK SYSTEM ON DISK
This marks the Disk there is no system for the load to RAM, or hard drive has not been set
become active at the time to do the partition.
6. When do the formatting on the diskette, the message "Invalid Media or Track 0 Bad" diskette means
it has been damaged in its sector 0. Take a look at the inside of the diskette, whether existing scratches
there. When it means the disk was already damaged.
7. Computers can load up to the Windows environment, but it looks cracked when set to high
This marks the true color or VGA card is not able to display color and
maximum resolution.
8. When trying to read the contents of a floppy disk, the computer displays the message General Failur Reading Drive A,
This could be due to the Floppy Disk Drive Head dirty, or worn. Try cleaning first
by using the Floppy Disk Cleaner, if the result is the same, meaning his head was already worn out
and must be replaced.
9. The first time you turn on the display on the monitor screen blur. This indicates that the regulator Focus on
Flyback monitor was not good, usually finishing with the transplant.
10. Views on the monitor over time the more it is not clear (blurred). Same as No. 9.
11. Monitor does not display a particular color. This menadakan there is a problem in a series of RGB in the
monitor.
12. Sometimes the monitor turns itself off, or difficult when turned on. Usually there is a loose solderan
Power Supply on its part or in its horizontal section.
Computer Peripheral 13.Cara Perform Testing:
1. Mainboard
Put processor in its socket, notice the sign / pin number 1. After the then connect with the power supplay, do not forget to plug the speakers. Try to turn it on, when the beep sound from the speakers out repeatedly, it means the mainboard is still good.
2. Processor
Install the processor on the mainboard Socket Processor, RAM and VGA card if not already ON Board. Then connect with the monitor and try to power, note the display on the screen. Note whether the clock for the processor is in conformity with the one shown in his Box.
3. RAM
Similar to a test on the processor except that the note is when a computer check on the RAM. What is the capacity of RAM is in conformity with the one shown in his Box? If the computer does not do a test of RAM (computer immediately displays the capacity of the RAM), this is a sign that soon it will die of RAM. If still warranty it immediately redeem RAM.
4. VGA Card
To perform tests on a VGA Card, must first install an operating system and installed drivers for the VGA. Perform the test with a way to maximize the setting for Display Adapter (note the ability of the monitor to perform this test), if it still can be set to the maximum setting, which means that the VGA is still good.
5. LAN Card
First we must check if the OS has to recognize and install drivers for the LAN card or not. If not, we must install the driver first. Once completed then we are setting the IP for the LAN card. Here's how: Right-click on Network Neighborhood icon, select Properties. Fill in the IP addresses, eg 192.168.0.1 and Masknya Sub Net 255.255.255.0, then open the MS DOS Prompt and try pinging the IP address that you typed earlier (ping 192.168.0.1). If successful, the LAN card can be used. But when the screen displays the words "Request Time Out", the LAN card can not be used again.
6. Sound Card
First we need to install drivers for the Sound Cardnya when the Operating System Sound Card not familiar with us. After the driver installed, Sound Card should be able to function properly.
7. Hardisk
How to do a test that is by partitioning a hard drive with fdisk. Note the correct process, if there is a problem at the time of partition, the possibility of hard drive has started to Bad Sector. The next step is formatting the hard drive. Once completed, can be checked by using Scandisk or Norton Disk Doctor to check the hard drive each sectornya. Damaged hard drive that has begun, it usually will throw an error on a FAT or Directory Structur him.
8. FDD (Floppy Disk Drive)
Before conducting tests on FDD, make sure that the configuration in the BIOS for the FDD is correct. How do testnya: go to the DOS Prompt, and from there enter the command to format a floppy disk with the option / s (to add the system on a formatted floppy disk.) FDD is still good, at the time doing the formatting and transfer system, no noise is too loud. When FDD noise when the format process, this indicates that the FDD was Head of his already worn.
9. CD ROM
To do the test on CD ROM is usually done from the Windows environment, by trying to read a CD ROM disc. CD ROM which is still good, does not require a long time to initialize the disc on the disc the first time in put into the CD ROM, except that its disc is defective or dirty. Try also to test the speed of data transfer from CD ROM in a way unite the existing data on CD ROM to the hard drive. If there is a problem, such as data transfer starts to slow down in comparison with the early time data copies, there are two possibilities. The first is the optical an already weak, the second is a dirty optics. Try cleaning with Optic Cleaner, if the result is the same, then optical is already weak.
10. Monitor
To do a test on the monitor, you must have a CPU with standard specifications and the VGA card that is able to display resolutions à to monitor and 1280 x 1024 Analog àtinggi (minimum 800 x 600 for digital monitors). How to do a test that is by setting up 30 ± resolution at the maximum limit the ability of the monitor. Turn on long (2 hours for a new monitor.) When the display ± minutes for 2nd monitor and the monitor does not change, then the monitor is still worth taking.
11. Power Supplay
To do the test at power supplay, can be done by using the Multi Tester. Move your pointer switches contained in the multi-tester to number 50 in the DC Volt. Plug the red to the positive source and the black to ground.
Reference Voltage:
To Power Supplay AT:
Color Voltage Cable
Black Ground
Red 5 V
Yellow 12 V
For ATX Power Supplay:
Color Voltage Cable
Black Ground
Red 5 V
Yellow 12 V
Blue - 12 V
Gray - 5 V
Orange OK (power good)
If there is excess voltage in the measurement of more than 0.5 volts (either more or less), then the power supplay needs to be fixed or replaced.
1. Make sure all equipment and materials that will be assembled was prepared.
2. Furthermore, before starting to assemble, we will do the checking on the mainboard. How: Install
Processor in socket on the mainboard processor (note the sign), connect the
Mainboard with Power Supplay, pairs of speakers as well. Then try on. When the
outgoing speaker beep sound repetitive, it means the mainboard is still healthy.
3. Then we will match the aperture / mainboard with the bolts in place of the existing bolts
on cashing. Note the hole anywhere that we can use later to membaut mainboard on
Cashing. After that install the mainboard and make sure all bolts are tightened.
4. Further pairs of RAM (also attach VGA card for VGA mainboard that is not ON Board),
then connect with the monitor. Try to turn, consider whether the specification of RAM and also Clock
Processor is in conformity with the specifications stated in his Box?
5. If all is okay, then in pairs of other devices such as Hard drive, Floppy Disks, CD
ROM, LAN Card and others.
6. Once installed all try to turn it on again, if there is no problem, can proceed with the process
installation.
• When you assemble your own computer right note WARRANTIES its limits, before the warranty runs out,
do not ever throw Box peripheralnya places such as Ram Box, Box MainBoad, VGA and other
forth.
Examples of problems that often occur in Computers:
1. At the time of booting, the computer displays the text "CMOS check sum error". This indicates that
stone BIOS battery was already low. Solved by replacing the BIOS battery according to the size
original.
2. The computer does not display anything when turned on, no sound coming out of the speakers.
Try checking the cable that connects between a VGA monitor. If you did not find any
damage, VGA Cardnya kemunkinannya is damaged.
3. Computer beep sound repeatedly when turned on.
RAM Check it, maybe there is dust / dirt, try off and cleaned, then in pairs again.
If still equal, replace his RAM.
4. When enabled, the hard drive indicator lights up and hold.
Possible hard drive has been exposed to BAD Sector Sector zero on it. If not so bad, still
could in the Low Level Format, then on the partition and the format, then try discandisk with surface
check
5. Computer displays messages Failur OR NON BOOT DISK SYSTEM ON DISK
This marks the Disk there is no system for the load to RAM, or hard drive has not been set
become active at the time to do the partition.
6. When do the formatting on the diskette, the message "Invalid Media or Track 0 Bad" diskette means
it has been damaged in its sector 0. Take a look at the inside of the diskette, whether existing scratches
there. When it means the disk was already damaged.
7. Computers can load up to the Windows environment, but it looks cracked when set to high
This marks the true color or VGA card is not able to display color and
maximum resolution.
8. When trying to read the contents of a floppy disk, the computer displays the message General Failur Reading Drive A,
This could be due to the Floppy Disk Drive Head dirty, or worn. Try cleaning first
by using the Floppy Disk Cleaner, if the result is the same, meaning his head was already worn out
and must be replaced.
9. The first time you turn on the display on the monitor screen blur. This indicates that the regulator Focus on
Flyback monitor was not good, usually finishing with the transplant.
10. Views on the monitor over time the more it is not clear (blurred). Same as No. 9.
11. Monitor does not display a particular color. This menadakan there is a problem in a series of RGB in the
monitor.
12. Sometimes the monitor turns itself off, or difficult when turned on. Usually there is a loose solderan
Power Supply on its part or in its horizontal section.
Computer Peripheral 13.Cara Perform Testing:
1. Mainboard
Put processor in its socket, notice the sign / pin number 1. After the then connect with the power supplay, do not forget to plug the speakers. Try to turn it on, when the beep sound from the speakers out repeatedly, it means the mainboard is still good.
2. Processor
Install the processor on the mainboard Socket Processor, RAM and VGA card if not already ON Board. Then connect with the monitor and try to power, note the display on the screen. Note whether the clock for the processor is in conformity with the one shown in his Box.
3. RAM
Similar to a test on the processor except that the note is when a computer check on the RAM. What is the capacity of RAM is in conformity with the one shown in his Box? If the computer does not do a test of RAM (computer immediately displays the capacity of the RAM), this is a sign that soon it will die of RAM. If still warranty it immediately redeem RAM.
4. VGA Card
To perform tests on a VGA Card, must first install an operating system and installed drivers for the VGA. Perform the test with a way to maximize the setting for Display Adapter (note the ability of the monitor to perform this test), if it still can be set to the maximum setting, which means that the VGA is still good.
5. LAN Card
First we must check if the OS has to recognize and install drivers for the LAN card or not. If not, we must install the driver first. Once completed then we are setting the IP for the LAN card. Here's how: Right-click on Network Neighborhood icon, select Properties. Fill in the IP addresses, eg 192.168.0.1 and Masknya Sub Net 255.255.255.0, then open the MS DOS Prompt and try pinging the IP address that you typed earlier (ping 192.168.0.1). If successful, the LAN card can be used. But when the screen displays the words "Request Time Out", the LAN card can not be used again.
6. Sound Card
First we need to install drivers for the Sound Cardnya when the Operating System Sound Card not familiar with us. After the driver installed, Sound Card should be able to function properly.
7. Hardisk
How to do a test that is by partitioning a hard drive with fdisk. Note the correct process, if there is a problem at the time of partition, the possibility of hard drive has started to Bad Sector. The next step is formatting the hard drive. Once completed, can be checked by using Scandisk or Norton Disk Doctor to check the hard drive each sectornya. Damaged hard drive that has begun, it usually will throw an error on a FAT or Directory Structur him.
8. FDD (Floppy Disk Drive)
Before conducting tests on FDD, make sure that the configuration in the BIOS for the FDD is correct. How do testnya: go to the DOS Prompt, and from there enter the command to format a floppy disk with the option / s (to add the system on a formatted floppy disk.) FDD is still good, at the time doing the formatting and transfer system, no noise is too loud. When FDD noise when the format process, this indicates that the FDD was Head of his already worn.
9. CD ROM
To do the test on CD ROM is usually done from the Windows environment, by trying to read a CD ROM disc. CD ROM which is still good, does not require a long time to initialize the disc on the disc the first time in put into the CD ROM, except that its disc is defective or dirty. Try also to test the speed of data transfer from CD ROM in a way unite the existing data on CD ROM to the hard drive. If there is a problem, such as data transfer starts to slow down in comparison with the early time data copies, there are two possibilities. The first is the optical an already weak, the second is a dirty optics. Try cleaning with Optic Cleaner, if the result is the same, then optical is already weak.
10. Monitor
To do a test on the monitor, you must have a CPU with standard specifications and the VGA card that is able to display resolutions à to monitor and 1280 x 1024 Analog àtinggi (minimum 800 x 600 for digital monitors). How to do a test that is by setting up 30 ± resolution at the maximum limit the ability of the monitor. Turn on long (2 hours for a new monitor.) When the display ± minutes for 2nd monitor and the monitor does not change, then the monitor is still worth taking.
11. Power Supplay
To do the test at power supplay, can be done by using the Multi Tester. Move your pointer switches contained in the multi-tester to number 50 in the DC Volt. Plug the red to the positive source and the black to ground.
Reference Voltage:
To Power Supplay AT:
Color Voltage Cable
Black Ground
Red 5 V
Yellow 12 V
For ATX Power Supplay:
Color Voltage Cable
Black Ground
Red 5 V
Yellow 12 V
Blue - 12 V
Gray - 5 V
Orange OK (power good)
If there is excess voltage in the measurement of more than 0.5 volts (either more or less), then the power supplay needs to be fixed or replaced.
file management in linux
Most of the files, just an ordinary file called regular file that contains the normal data as an example of text files, executable files, or programs, input or output of the program and others. In addition to regular file there specific files as follows:
* Directories: files that contain lists of other files.
* Special files: the mechanism used for input and output. Most are in the directory / dev.
* Links: System to create files or directories can be seen in banayk part of the system file tree.
* (Domain) sockets: a special file type, similar to the sockets TCP / IP, which provides inter-process networking protected by the file system's access control.
* Named pipes: to function more or less like sockets and form a path for the communication process.
· Absolute Paths
An absolute path at the start of the root (/), and the name of the directory will be
into being in it, for example ls which is actually located in the directory:
/ Bin / ls
So to run the ls command using the absolute path ie
by:
[Josh @ josh slashsmart] $ / bin / ls
We can also use ls to display files in a directory
with absolute path:
[Josh @ josh slashsmart] $ ls / usr / share / doc /
· Current Directory
To find the directory where the guess is right now, use the pwd command:
[Josh @ josh slashsmart] $ pwd / home / josh
To change directory cd command we use:
[Josh @ josh slashsmart] $ cd / var / log /
[Josh @ slashsmart log] $ pwd / var / log
To return to our home directory, use the cd command without any options or paths followed.
· Create and Delete Directories
To create a directory use mkdir followed by name of the directory
want to be made:
[Josh @ josh slashsmart] $ mkdir list
Keep in mind the system of unix / linux in general we are allowed to create / delete directories or menulisinya only in our home directory. To remove use rmdir. This command only if the directory is a directory that will be removed empty (no files or other directories in it):
[Josh @ josh slashsmart] $ rmdir list
To delete a directory that has a file or directory, use rm
followed by the options r:
[Josh @ josh slashsmart] $ rm r list
Be careful using this command because the system unix / linux there is no recycle
bin or undelete command
· Relative Paths
To enter a directory we do not have to start from the root directory (/) or
with relatively path.Jadi katalain we use depends on the directory where
we were at that time.
For example:
[Josh @ josh slashsmart] $ cd /
[Josh @ slashsmart /] $ cd usr
[Josh @ slashsmart usr] $ cd share
[Josh @ slashsmart share] $
· Special Dot Direktories
There are two special directories using a dot in the system unix / linux:
First the directory .. which indicates the parent directory or the directory above us.
[Josh @ josh slashsmart] $ cd ..
[Josh @ slashsmart home] $ pwd
/ Home
[Josh @ slashsmart home] $ cd ..
[Josh @ slashsmart /] $ pwd
/
Both directories. which shows the directory where we are.
[Josh @ josh slashsmart] $ cd. / Mail
tantamount to
[Josh @ josh slashsmart] $ cd Mail
· Hidden Files and Directories
A special directory. and .. is a hidden directory, to view it
use ls with the option a.
[Josh @ josh slashsmart] $ ls a
. /. Bash_logout
.. /. Bash_profile
. Bash_history. Bashrc
public_html /
As an omen, all files beginning with terhidden. , Usually hidden files are configuration files.
Path to Home Directories
·
Symbols used in the ~. To enter the directory that is at home
we can use:
[Josh @ slashsmart etc] $ cd / home / josh / public_html
tantamount to:
[Josh @ slashsmart etc] $ cd ~ / public_html
To enter the other user's home (eg on my system, there are other users by name
lognight, we use the sign in front till the user name:
* Directories: files that contain lists of other files.
* Special files: the mechanism used for input and output. Most are in the directory / dev.
* Links: System to create files or directories can be seen in banayk part of the system file tree.
* (Domain) sockets: a special file type, similar to the sockets TCP / IP, which provides inter-process networking protected by the file system's access control.
* Named pipes: to function more or less like sockets and form a path for the communication process.
· Absolute Paths
An absolute path at the start of the root (/), and the name of the directory will be
into being in it, for example ls which is actually located in the directory:
/ Bin / ls
So to run the ls command using the absolute path ie
by:
[Josh @ josh slashsmart] $ / bin / ls
We can also use ls to display files in a directory
with absolute path:
[Josh @ josh slashsmart] $ ls / usr / share / doc /
· Current Directory
To find the directory where the guess is right now, use the pwd command:
[Josh @ josh slashsmart] $ pwd / home / josh
To change directory cd command we use:
[Josh @ josh slashsmart] $ cd / var / log /
[Josh @ slashsmart log] $ pwd / var / log
To return to our home directory, use the cd command without any options or paths followed.
· Create and Delete Directories
To create a directory use mkdir followed by name of the directory
want to be made:
[Josh @ josh slashsmart] $ mkdir list
Keep in mind the system of unix / linux in general we are allowed to create / delete directories or menulisinya only in our home directory. To remove use rmdir. This command only if the directory is a directory that will be removed empty (no files or other directories in it):
[Josh @ josh slashsmart] $ rmdir list
To delete a directory that has a file or directory, use rm
followed by the options r:
[Josh @ josh slashsmart] $ rm r list
Be careful using this command because the system unix / linux there is no recycle
bin or undelete command
· Relative Paths
To enter a directory we do not have to start from the root directory (/) or
with relatively path.Jadi katalain we use depends on the directory where
we were at that time.
For example:
[Josh @ josh slashsmart] $ cd /
[Josh @ slashsmart /] $ cd usr
[Josh @ slashsmart usr] $ cd share
[Josh @ slashsmart share] $
· Special Dot Direktories
There are two special directories using a dot in the system unix / linux:
First the directory .. which indicates the parent directory or the directory above us.
[Josh @ josh slashsmart] $ cd ..
[Josh @ slashsmart home] $ pwd
/ Home
[Josh @ slashsmart home] $ cd ..
[Josh @ slashsmart /] $ pwd
/
Both directories. which shows the directory where we are.
[Josh @ josh slashsmart] $ cd. / Mail
tantamount to
[Josh @ josh slashsmart] $ cd Mail
· Hidden Files and Directories
A special directory. and .. is a hidden directory, to view it
use ls with the option a.
[Josh @ josh slashsmart] $ ls a
. /. Bash_logout
.. /. Bash_profile
. Bash_history. Bashrc
public_html /
As an omen, all files beginning with terhidden. , Usually hidden files are configuration files.
Path to Home Directories
·
Symbols used in the ~. To enter the directory that is at home
we can use:
[Josh @ slashsmart etc] $ cd / home / josh / public_html
tantamount to:
[Josh @ slashsmart etc] $ cd ~ / public_html
To enter the other user's home (eg on my system, there are other users by name
lognight, we use the sign in front till the user name:
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